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The history of witchcraft had evolved around society. More of a psychological concept to the creation and usage of witchcraft can create the assumption as to why women are more likely to follow the practices behind witchcraft. Identifying with the soul of an individual's self is often deemed as "feminine" in society. There is analyzed social and economic evidence to associate between witchcraft and women. [ relevant?] [115] Goya's drawing of result of a presumed witch's trial: "[so she must be a witch]" [116] Meanwhile, legends of Thessalian witches developed during the Classical Greek period. [13] According to many sources, Thessaly was notorious for being a haven for witches, [14] and "folklore about the region has persisted with tales of witches, drugs, poisons and magical spells ever since the Roman period." [15] Basically I’ve chosen things that I think initially position a new reader to feeling the ambience of traditional craft, then to understanding it better and then on to taking practical steps to learning non-Wiccan forms of witchcraft practice. However, because what I’ve chosen do not belong to a particular tradition of Old Craft it would be arguable to some if they class as such. But in my mind these are the closest things on the market to position a new individual both at the ‘heart, head and hands’ levels. In chapters 6–11 of the Octavius, Caecilius, the pagan opponent of Christianity, accuses Christians of rejecting ancestral beliefs and of failing to imitate the piety of the Romans (chap. 6), of failing to understand the communication of gods with humans (chap. 7), of denying the existence of many gods and accepting only the dregs of society, the most shameful people, into their assemblies and organizing dreadful, nocturnal, secret meetings (chap. 8). They practice indiscriminate sexual activity, worship the head of an ass, worship the genital organs of their priests, and initiate novices by making them kill infants and cannibalize them (chap. 9). Their rites are held in secret, and they have no temples (chap. 10). Finally they are a subversive sect that threatens the stability of the whole world (chap. 11). [84] The Malleus Maleficarum was influential in European witch trials Russell, Jeffrey Burton. "Witchcraft". Britannica.com. Archived from the original on May 10, 2013 . Retrieved June 29, 2013.
As Christian views on magic continued to evolve and intertwine with changing cultural landscapes, the perception of supernatural practices became increasingly intricate. The Church's endeavors to assert its dominance over alternative belief systems led to the suppression of various magical methodologies. [71] Simultaneously, the conceptualization of witches and their alleged pacts with the Devil solidified during the Early Modern period, resulting in the infamous witch trials. These trials marked a significant turning point in the Church's engagement with magic, as accusations of heinous acts were projected onto the figure of the witch. Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 – c. 395) had said that demons had children with women called cambions, which added to the children they had between them, contributed to increase the number of demons. However, the first popular account of such a union and offspring does not occur in Western literature until around 1136, when Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote the story of Merlin in his pseudohistorical account of British history, Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain), in which he reported that Merlin's father was an incubus. [71] For a historic perspective on belief and practice, Cunning Folk and Familiar Spirits: Shamanistic Visionary Traditions in Early Modern British Witchcraft and Magic by Emma Wilby is a great place to start. Although it is an academic book, Wilby’s writing style is highly engaging and informative. Her book will also add a deeper layer to one’s understanding of witchcraft history through her analysis of folk beliefs and witchcraft trial records. Then there are books that may be described as “practical” guides- books where people talk about working tools, and rituals, and suchlike. I could fairly answer this question if asked to give five books from four different areas of knowledge. But since you have asked for just five, I gave them as best I could. The Russian word ведьма ( ved'ma) literally means 'knower', and was the primary word for a malevolent witch. [112]It was thought witchcraft could be thwarted by protective magic or counter-magic, which could be provided by the ' cunning folk' or 'wise people'. This included charms, talismans and amulets, anti- witch marks, witch bottles, witch balls, and burying objects such as horse skulls inside the walls of buildings. [20] People believed that bewitchment could be broken by physically punishing the alleged witch, such as by banishing, wounding, torturing or killing them. "In most societies, however, a formal and legal remedy was preferred to this sort of private action", whereby the alleged witch would be prosecuted and then formally punished if found guilty. [4] :24-25 With Christianization, belief in witchcraft came to be seen as superstition. The Council of Leptinnes in 744 drew up a "List of Superstitions", which prohibited sacrifice to saints and created a baptismal formula that required one to renounce works of demons, specifically naming Thor and Odin. [ citation needed] Persecution of witchcraft nevertheless persisted throughout most of the Early Middle Ages, into the 10th century. Macfarlane, Alan (1999). Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England: A Regional and Comparative Study. Psychology Press. p.130. ISBN 978-0415196123. Singh, Manvir (2021-02-02). "Magic, Explanations, and Evil: The Origins and Design of Witches and Sorcerers". Current Anthropology. 62 (1): 2–29. doi: 10.1086/713111. ISSN 0011-3204. S2CID 232214522. Archived from the original on 2021-07-18 . Retrieved 2021-04-28. It was only beginning in the 1150s that the Church turned its attention to defining the possible roles of spirits and demons, especially with respect to their sexuality and in connection with the various forms of magic which were then believed to exist. [71] Christian demonologists eventually came to agree that sexual relationships between demons and humans happen, but they disagreed on why and how. [71] A common point of view is that demons induce men and women to the sin of lust, and adultery is often considered as an associated sin.
a b Willis, Deborah (2018). Malevolent Nurture: Witch-Hunting and Maternal Power in Early Modern England. Cornell University Press. pp.27–28. The "magical" or "sorcerer" witch: either a professional healer, sorcerer, seer or midwife, or a person who was thought to have used magic to increase her fortune to the perceived detriment of a neighboring household; due to neighborhood or community rivalries, and the ambiguity between positive and negative magic, such individuals can become branded as witches. Beyond the original definition given, traditional witchcraft is also used to define non-Wiccan traditions of Witchcraft born from the works of folks like Robert Cochrane, Andrew Chumbley, Austin Osman Spare, Kenneth Grant, and Paul Huson. Beyond this, most Trad Craft authors and practitioners are reconstructionists of a real kind, digging up the witchcraft and folklore practices of the past, constantly doing in-depth research on various witch-trials, as well as utilizing direct transmission from spirits and deities about their “nameless art”. Main article: Cunning folk Diorama of a cunning woman or wise woman in the Museum of Witchcraft and Magic My final choice is a charming little book, ‘ The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns and Fairies’ by Robert Kirk. Published originally in 17th century Scotland, this remarkable study reveals the vibrant realms of the ‘other’ that spill over into our own, creating havoc and mischief. Laced with folklore and popular superstition, the author, a Scottish minister ‘roamed the highlands of Scotland for stories of wraiths, elves and ‘other agents of the spirit world.’ His enchanting account preserves for us the nature of belief and how witchcraft traditions were absorbed into common folk practises. Nigel PearsonThis conforms to the thoughts of Saint Augustine of Hippo, who taught that witchcraft did not exist and that the belief in it was heretical. [59] While Western Europe often employed harsh torture methods, Russia implemented a more civil system of fines for witchcraft during the seventeenth century. This approach contrasted with the West's cruelties and represented a significant difference in persecution methods. Ivan IV, or Ivan the Terrible, was deeply convinced that witchcraft led to the death of his wife, spurring him to excommunicate and impose the death penalty on those practicing witchcraft. This fear of witchcraft persisted during Ivan IV's rule, leading to the accusation of boyars with witchcraft during the Oprichnina period, followed by increased witchcraft concerns during the Time of Troubles. [117] The "supernatural" or "night" witch: portrayed in court narratives as a demon appearing in visions and dreams. [34] Historians and anthropologists see the concept of "witchcraft" as one of the ways humans have tried to explain strange misfortune. [4] :10 [5] Some cultures have feared witchcraft much less than others, because they tend to have other explanations for strange misfortune; for example that it was caused by gods, spirits, demons or fairies, or by other humans who have unwittingly cast the evil eye. [4] :10 For example, the Gaels of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands historically held a strong belief in fairy folk, who could cause supernatural harm, and witch-hunting was very rare in these regions compared to other regions of the British Isles. [4] :245-248 There are accounts of people being prosecuted and punished for witchcraft in the ancient Greco-Roman world, before Christianity. In ancient Greece, for example, Theoris, a woman of Lemnos, was prosecuted for and executed along with her family. [12] Records refer to her as pharmakis (potion specialist), [4] :55 mantis (diviner), [4] :54 and hiereia (priestess), but the sentence against her and her family was for asebeia (impiety). [4] :56
Hexentum [ de] is the German term for witchcraft. These practitioners engage in folk magic, spellwork, and other witchcraft practices. Sorcellerie [ fr] refers to witchcraft practices in France, [136] often rooted in traditional folk magic, spellcasting, and working with natural elements. Wróżbiarstwo [ pl] is the Polish term for divination and witchcraft. It involves practices like fortune-telling, spellcasting, and working with herbs and charms. Brujería [ es] refers to witchcraft in Spain. Modern practitioners engage in spellwork, ritual magic, and working with herbs and crystals. Noita refers to Finnish folk magic, which involves practices such as healing, protection, and divination. It draws from local traditions and folklore. Various forms of folk magic and witchcraft practices are present in Eastern European countries, often involving rituals, spells, and working with charms and herbs. [137] [138]While the common people were aware of the difference between witches, who they considered willing to undertake evil actions, such as cursing, and cunning folk who avoided involvement in such activities, the Church attempted to blot out the distinction. In much the same way that culturally distinct non-Christian religions were all lumped together and termed merely "Pagan", so too was all magic lumped together as equally sinful and abhorrent. The earliest written reference to witches as such, from Ælfric's homilies, [68] portrays them as malign. Orion Foxwood has written a very personal book in “ The Flame in the Cauldron”. It details a lot of his own experiences in learning about the Craft and gives useful and practical examples drawn not only from his own Appalachian heritage, but also from teachings he received from Old Craft mentors from England. It is a curious mix of lore and practicality, but all the more interesting for that. Ronald Hutton outlined five key characteristics ascribed to witches and witchcraft by most cultures that believe in the concept. Traditionally, witchcraft was believed to be the use of magic to cause harm or misfortune to others; it was used by the witch against their own community; it was seen as immoral and often thought to involve communion with evil beings; powers of witchcraft were believed to have been acquired through inheritance or initiation; and witchcraft could be thwarted by defensive magic, persuasion, intimidation or physical punishment of the alleged witch. [4] :3-4 Illustration by Martin van Maële, of a Witches' Sabbath, in the 1911 edition of La Sorcière by Jules Michelet
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