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Morrow, John H. (2005). The Great War: An Imperial History. London: Routledge. p.290. ISBN 978-0-415-20440-8. Falls, Cyril Bentham (1960). The First World War. London: Longmans. ISBN 978-1-84342-272-3. OCLC 460327352.
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Hastings, Max (2013). Catastrophe: Europe goes to War 1914. London: Collins. pp.30, 140. ISBN 978-0-00-746764-8. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called "war guilt" clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies." [315] It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However, neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war guilt." [316] In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132billion gold marks. However, "Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay" this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being "deliberately designed to be chimerical" and its "primary function was to mislead public opinion... into believing the "total sum was being maintained." [317] Thus, 50billion gold marks (12.5billion dollars) "represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay" and "therefore… represented the total German reparations" figure that had to be paid. [317]The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns (1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in the siege of Kut by the Ottomans (1915–16), British Imperial forces reorganised and captured Baghdad in March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian fighters, while the Ottomans employed local Kurdish and Turcoman tribes. [120] Ide, Tobias; Bruch, Carl; Carius, Alexander; Conca, Ken; Dabelko, Geoffrey D.; Matthew, Richard; Weinthal, Erika (2021). "The past and future(s) of environmental peacebuilding". International Affairs. 97: 1–16. doi: 10.1093/ia/iiaa177. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021 . Retrieved 31 March 2021. Hall, Allan (28 September 2010). "First World War officially ends". The Telegraph. Berlin. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 15 March 2017.
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Cook, Tim (2006). "The politics of surrender: Canadian soldiers and the killing of prisoners in the First World War". The Journal of Military History. 70 (3): 637–665. doi: 10.1353/jmh.2006.0158. S2CID 155051361. Ward, Alan J. (1974). "Lloyd George and the 1918 Irish conscription crisis". Historical Journal. 17 (1): 107–129. doi: 10.1017/S0018246X00005689. S2CID 162360809. a b c d Sheffield, Garry. "The First Battle of the Atlantic". World Wars in Depth. BBC. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019 . Retrieved 11 November 2009. Chambers, John Whiteclay (1987). To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-905820-6. International Association of Genocide Scholars. "Resolution on genocides committed by the Ottoman empire" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 April 2008.
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This has become the most common perception of World War I, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems, and stories published subsequently. Films such as All Quiet on the Western Front, Paths of Glory and King and Country have perpetuated the idea, while war-time films including Camrades, Poppies of Flanders, and Shoulder Arms indicate that the most contemporary views of the war were overall far more positive. [387] Likewise, the art of Paul Nash, John Nash, Christopher Nevinson, and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception, while popular war-time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate. [386] Several historians like John Terraine, Niall Ferguson and Gary Sheffield have challenged these interpretations as partial and polemical views:
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Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire, and saw Serbian expansion as a direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878. Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as a significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria co-operating with Russia in the Balkans while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy, both of whom had their own expansionist ambitions in the region. [22] Schaller, Dominik J.; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies– introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi: 10.1080/14623520801950820. S2CID 71515470. Hall, Richard (2010). Balkan Breakthrough: The Battle of Dobro Pole 1918. Indiana University Press. p.11. ISBN 978-0-253-35452-5.In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle East in an effort to achieve independence. [329] World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-century tactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised and were making use of telephone, wireless communication, [355] armoured cars, tanks (especially with the advent of the first prototype tank, Little Willie), and aircraft. [356] Grebler, Leo (1940). The Cost of the World War to Germany and Austria–Hungary. Yale University Press. p. 78
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Suddath, Claire (4 October 2010). "Why Did World War I Just End?". Time. Archived from the original on 5 October 2010 . Retrieved 1 July 2013.Lichfield, John (21 February 2006). "Verdun: myths and memories of the 'lost villages' of France". The Independent. Archived from the original on 22 October 2017 . Retrieved 23 July 2013. The United States was a major supplier of war materiel to the Allies but remained neutral in 1914, in large part due to domestic opposition. [169] The most significant factor in creating the support Wilson needed was the German submarine offensive, which not only cost American lives, but paralysed trade as ships were reluctant to put to sea. [170] O'Halpin, Eunan, The Decline of the Union: British Government in Ireland, 1892–1920, (Dublin, 1987)
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